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Kerajaan-kerajaan Tertua di Indonesia

10. Kutai Kartanegara (1300-1650)

Around the end of the 13th century the kingdom of Kutai Kartanegara was established in the region of Tepian Batu or Kutai Lama. The first known ruler is Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti, who is thought to have ruled from 1300 to 1325. Aji Pangeran Sinum Panji Mendapa, who ruled 1635-1650, was able to conquer the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura and merged the two realms thus Kutai Kartanegara Ing Martadipura.In 1667 the Dutch V.O.C. attacked Makassar on the island of Sulawesi leading to the downfall of the Bugis Kingdom of Gowa. Some of the Bugis under the leadership of Lamohang Daeng Mangkona or Pua Ado I immigrated to Kutai on neighbouring Borneo(Kalimantan) and the ruler of Kutai allowed them to settle in Kampung Melantai around the Karang Mumus River, now known as Kampung Selili. This settlement eventually developed into the modern town of Samarinda.Islam took hold in the region since the 17th century (most of the Bugis where moslems) and Aji Muhammad Idris, ruling 1732-1739, was the first ruler to have an Islamic name.

After a civil war Aji Imbut, after finally becoming the ruler as Aji Muhammad Muslihuddin in 1780, moved the capital in 1782 from Pemarangan to Tepian Pandan. The name of the capital city eventually developed from Tangga Arung to its present form of Tenggarong.
In 1844 the Dutch defeated the Sultan Aji Muhammad Salehudin, forcing him into exile, and took direct control of Kutai.
The Japanese invaded the region in 1942 and acknowledged a "Kooti Kingdom", that was a subject of the Tenno. In 1945 Kutai joined, along with its neighbours, into the East Kalimantan federation.
In 1949 Kutai finally became part of the United Republic of Indonesia.

9. Majapahit (1293-1500 AD)

Majapahit was an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked by the conquest of kingdoms in Maritime Southeast Asia (including present day Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, East Timor, and the Philippines).

Majapahit empire was the last of the major empires of the Malay archipelago and is considered to be one of the greatest empires in Indonesian history. Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been a subject of many studies.

Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract. The main sources used by historians are: the Pararaton ('Book of Kings') written in Kawi language and Nagarakertagama in Old Javanese. Pararaton is focused upon Ken Arok (the founder of Singhasari) but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. Nagarakertagama, is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk after which some events are inadequately covered. There are also some inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese.The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C. Berg, a Dutch nationalist, have considered that the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be http://opinibureto.blogspot.com. Despite Berg's approach, most scholars do not accept this view, as the historical record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the state structure, show no sign of being invented.

8. Singhasari (1222-1292 AD)

Singhasari (Singosari) was founded by Ken Arok (1182-1227/1247), whose story is a popular children's tale in Central and East Java.

Ken Arok was an orphan born of a mother named Ken Endok and an unknown father (some tales stated he was a son of god Brahma himself – one of three gods of Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) in Kediri kingdom’s territory. Ken Arok was also said to be a reincarnation of Vishnu. And years later, when he was in war against King Kertajaya of Kediri, the king arrogantly said that only Shiva himself can defeat him, and thus Ken Arok used Shiva as his title, as though the three gods were united in him. Regardless of the veracity of his claim, Ken Arok proved himself by growing from a mere commoner to be a king whose descendants ruled Java for centuries.
Ken Arok was raised by a thief. Thus lack of supervision regarding right and wrong from his parents made him into a boy who simply follows his desires. He earned a very bad reputation by fighting, gambling, stealing, etc. Later in life, he came into the service of Tunggul Ametung, a local lord of Tumapel, one of the regions of Kediri. Ken Arok, who was very talented at making good impressions from his youth, somehow earned Tunggul Ametung's trust and came to be one of his most trusted people.Tunggul Ametung, a middle-aged lord of Tumapel, had a very beautiful young wife, Ken Dedes. Ken Dedes was a daughter of Mpu Purwa, a renowned Buddhist priest. She had been abducted by the Tumapel lord while her father was away. Ken Arok fell in love with Ken Dedes when they first met, and he planned to make her his wife, even if it meant he had to kill his own master. To this end, Ken Arok went to a famous weaponsmith named Mpu Gandring and asked him to make a sacred kris (Javanese double-edged dagger). The process of making the sacred weapon took longer than Ken Arok could stand, and in his anger he took the unfinished weapon from Mpu Gandring and killed the smith with his own weapon. In his last breath, Mpu Gandring cursed Ken Arok and the next 7 generations of his descendants to death by the same weapon (famous as “Mupu Gandring’s curse”).
Ken Arok made a show of his kris to one of his fellow Tunggul Ametung’s retainer, Kebo Ijo, who became fascinated with the unique weapon and asked Ken Arok to lend him the Kris. When Kebo Ijo had the Kris, he bragged to everyone that the weapon belonged to him. Ken Arok kept silent about this, as he was well aware of Kebo Ijo’s character and these were his plans from the start. One night, Ken Arok secretly took the weapon from Kebo Ijo’s room, slipped away and managed to kill Tunggul Ametung. He left the kris on the lord's chest so Kebo Ijo would be blamed for the murder. The accused Kebo Ijo was soon killed by Ken Arok before he could deny using the kris of Mpu Gandring. Ken Arok then took Ken Dedes as his wife and made himself the new lord of Tumapel. At the time, Ken Dedes was pregnant with Tunggul Ametung's child.
The ambition of Ken Arok did not stop. He changed Tumapel’s name into Singhasari (Singosari) and rebelled against the Kediri kingdom. At the time, the Kediri had a clash with Buddhist priests, who sought protection from Ken Arok. Using this as a reason, he went to war with Kediri. In 1222, at a battle near Ganter village he defeated King Kertajaya of Kediri, and thus founded the new kingdom of Singhasari with himself as the first king, entitled Prabu (King) Sri Rajasa Sang Amurwabhumi. Kediri became Singhasari territory.Years after Ken Arok became King, whether Mpu Gandring’s curse came true or it was just a coincidence, he was killed by his stepson, Anusapati, son of Ken Dedes from Tunggul Ametung, by the same kris of Mpu Gandring he used to kill Tunggul Ametung. Anusapati was later killed by Panji Tohjaya, son of Ken Arok and his concubine Ken Umang. Panji Tohjaya also met his fate by the very same weapon later, in a rebellion led by Ranggawuni, Anusapati's son. Only Ranggawuni or Wisnuwardhana was peacefully succeeded by his son, Kertanegara, the last and the greatest king of Singhasari.

7. Kediri (1045-1221 AD)

Kediri was an Indianized kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the seeming lack of archaeological remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluh's Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmaja's Smaradahana blossomed in this era.

Celebrated as the era of blossomming literature, Kediri produced significant contributions in the field of Javanese classic literature. Next to the literary works already mentioned, Lubdhaka and Wrtasancaya by Mpu Tanakung, Krisnayana written by Mpu Triguna, and Sumanasantaka by Mpu Monaguna are also notable.The book of Ling-wai-tai-ta composed by Chinese author Chou K'u-fei in 1178 gave a glimpse of everyday life in Kediri that cannot be found in any other source material, about the government and people of Kediri. According to Chou K'u-fei, people wore clothes that covered them down to their legs, with a loose hairstyle. Their houses were clean and well arranged with floors made from green or yellow cut stones. Agriculture, animal farming, and trading flourished and gained full attention from government. He reported that silkworm farms to produce silk and cotton clothes production had been adopted by Javanese by that time. There was no physical punishment (jail or torture) of criminals. Instead, the people who committed unlawful acts were forced to pay fines in gold, except for thieves and robbers who were executed. In marital customs, the bride's family received some amount of bride price from the groom's family. Instead of developing medical treatment, the Kediri people relied on prayers to Buddha.
On the 5th month of the year a water festival was celebrated, people would travel in boats on along the river to celebrate. On the 10th month, another festival was held in the mountains. People would gather there to have fun and perform musical with instruments such as flutes, drums, and wooden xylophones (an ancient form of gamelan).
The King wore silk garments, leather shoes and ornately golden jewelry. He wore his hair up high on his head. Everyday he would receive state officials managers of his kingdom on a square throne. After an audience, the state official would bow three times to the king. If the king traveled outside the palace, he rode an elephant, accompanied by 500 to 700 soldiers and officials, while his subjects, the people of Kediri prostrated themselves as the king passed.

6. Sailendra (8th-9th centuries)

Sailendra (Sanskrit:Lord of the Mountain) is the name of an influential Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java.

The Sailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, including the world famous Borobudur.The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which the dynastic name Sailendra appears is the Kalasan inscription of central Java, dated 778 AD, which commemorates the establishment of a Buddhist shrine for the Buddhist goddess Tara.
The name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription (782) and the Karentengah (792). Outside Indonesia, the name Sailendra is to be found in the Ligor inscription (775) on the Malay peninsula and the mid-9th century Nalanda inscription.
The Sailendra rulers maintained close relations, including marriage alliances with the Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra. For instance, Samaratungga married Dewi Tara, a daughter of Srivijayan maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival and that the Sailendra had access to the international market.The received version holds that the Sailendra dynasty existed next to the Sanjaya dynasty in Java. Much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation but towards the middle of the 9th century relations had deteriorated. Around 852 the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan had defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Sailendra monarch Samaratunga and princess Tara. This ended the Sailendra presence in Java and Balaputra retreated to the Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.

5. Mataram (752-1045 AD)

Mataram was a Hindu-Buddhist Javanese kingdom based in Central Java between the 8th and 10th centuries AD and was established by king Sanjaya, he was also known as the founder of Sanjaya dynasty. The Sanjaya dynasty reign the kingdom, but then in later period the kingdom was ruled by Isyana Dynasty. Although initially eclipsed in power by the rival Sailendra Dynasty, by 850 it had become the dominant power in Java and was a serious rival to the hegemonic Srivijaya Empire.

The early account of Mataram kingdom is mentioned in Canggal inscription, dated 732, discovered in Canggal village, Southwest from the town of Magelang. This inscription was written in Pallava letters and in Sanskrit, and tell about the erection of a lingga (symbol of Shiva) on the hill in the Kunjarakunja area. This area is located at a noble island called Yawadwipa (Java) which blessed with abundance of rice and gold. This inscription tells that Yawadwipa was reigned by king Sanna, which his long period of reign was marked with wisdom and virtue. After king Sanna died the kingdom fell into disunity. Confused because lost of ruler and patron, Sanjaya ascend to throne, he was the son of Sannaha (sister of Sanna). He was king that mastered holy scriptures, martial art, and also military prowess. He conquered neighboring area around his kingdom, his wise reign blessed his land with peace and prosperity for all his subjects.
King Sanna and Sanjaya also known in Carita Parahyangan, a book from later period which mainly tell the history of Pasundan (Sunda Kingdom). This book mentioned that Sanna was defeated by Purbasora, king of Galuh, then he retreated to mount Merapi. Later Sanna's successor Sanjaya reclaim Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Bali. He also involved in battle with Malayu and Keling (against their king Sang Srivijaya). In main theme of Carita Parahyangan is corresponds to Canggal inscription.

4. Srivijaya (7th - 13th centuries)

Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6 months. The first inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century, namely the Kedukan Bukit Inscription around Palembang in Sumatra, dated 683.The kingdom ceased to exist between 1200 and 1300 due to various factors, including the expansion of Majapahit. In Sanskrit, sri means "shining" or "radiant" and vijaya means "victory" or "excellence".After Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten and so historians had never considered that a large united kingdom could have been present in Southeast Asia. The existence of Srivijaya was only formally suspected in 1918 when French historian George Coedès of the École française d'Extrême-Orient postulated the existence of the empire. Around 1992 and 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin proved that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now the province of South Sumatra, Indonesia).

3. The Sunda Kingdom (669-1579 AD)

The Sunda Kingdom was a kingdom based on western part of Java from 669 to around 1579, covering areas of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga Manik manuscript the eastern border of the Sunda Kingdom is Pamali River (Ci Pamali, present day Brebes River) and Serayu River (Ci Sarayu) in Central Java. Most of the accounts of Sunda Kingdom came from the primary historical records dated from the sixteenth century.Little physical evidence of Sunda kingdom remains, and most parts of West Java history is remain unclear. However there is continuous knowledge about the kingdom among Sundanese people that has been kept alive through Sundanese Pantun oral tradition, the chant of poetic verses mostly tells the story of the golden era of Sunda Pajajaran and the legend of King Siliwangi, the popular king of Sunda.Most of the account and records of Sunda kingdom came from ancient manuscripts dated from later period, such as Wangsakerta, Carita Parahyangan, Kidung Sunda, Bujangga Manik, and Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara. Several stone inscriptions also mentioned the kingdom, such as Jayabupati, Kawali, and Batutulis.

2. Tarumanegara (358-669 AD)

Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese kingdom, whose fifth-century ruler, Purnavarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions on Java island. The kingdom was not far from modern Jakarta, and Purnavarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.

Tarumanagara existed between 358-669. The earliest known written records of Tarumanagara existence are inscribed monument stones. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian language. A prasasti located in a river bed of Caiaruteun river, called Prasasti Ciaruteun, from the fifth century AD, written in Wengi letters (used in the Indian Pallava period) and in Sanskrit language.
In about 650, Tarumanagara kingdom was attacked and defeated by Srivijaya (a kingdom established in Sumatra island in 500). Then, Tarumanegara's influence on its small kingdoms began to decline.In 669, Tarusbawa inherited Tarumanagara crown. Tarusbawa was the last king of Tarumanagara. This is in line with Chinese chronicles mentioning that a messenger of Tarumanagara last visited China in 669. Tarusbawa indeed sent his messenger advising his enthronement to Chinese king in 669. Because the influence of Tarumanagara in Tarusbawa era declined as a result of severance by its vassal states as well as due to the attacks by Srivijaya, he wished to return the greatness of the kingdom as was in the era of Purnawarman controlling the kingdoms from Sunda Pura. Hence, in 670, he changed name Tarumanagara to be Sunda.
This event was made as a reason by king Wretikandayun (Monarchic founder of Galuh) to dissociate the small kingdom from the power of Tarumanagara and asked King Tarusbawa to divide Tarumanagara territory into two parts. Galuh got a support from Kalingga kingdom (the first kingdom in Java island) to separate from Tarumanagara because Galuh and Kalingga had made an alliance through dynastic marriage; a son of King Wretikandayun married Parwati (a daughter of Queen Sima) from Kalingga and Sana alias Bratasenawa alias Sena (a grandson of King Wretikandayun) married Sanaha (a granddaughter of Queen Sima). In a weak position and wishing to avoid civil war, the young King Tarusbawa accepted the request of old King Wretikandayun. In 670, Tarumanagara was divided into two kingdoms: Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom with the Citarum river as the boundary. Then Galuh Kingdom comprised many vassal kingdoms which covered areas of present-day West and present-day Central Java Provinces.
King Tarusbawa then established a new capital of his kingdom near the Cipakancilan river upstream which centuries later became the city of Pakuan Pajajaran (or shortly called Pakuan or Pajajaran). King Tarusbawa becomes the ancestor of Sunda kings.


1. Kutai Martadipura (350-400 AD)
The history is usually divided into two periods, that of the early Kutai Martadipura phase some time around 350-400 and the later Kutai Kartanegara phase beginning around 1300.
Seven stone pillars, or yūpa (“sacrificial posts”), have been found in Kutai, Kaman Estuary, near the Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests". The style of the script has been dated to the last half the fourth century. It is believed these religions were brought to Indonesia around the second and fourth centuries, respectively, when Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi.The names of three rulers are known from the inscriptions. The first ruler mentioned is Kuṇḍungga, the “lord of men” (narendra), his son Aśwawarman, styled the “founder of the dynasty” (vaṇśa-kartṛ) and grandson of the first and son of the later, Mūlawarman called the “lord of kings” (rājendra). As Kuṇḍungga does not seem to be a name of Sanskrit hinduistic style while the other two are, it is presumed he was a leader of local origin and it was his son Aśwawarman that adopted the hinduistic belief. It was Mūlawarman who let these inscriptions be made. While nothing of the military actions of his two predecessors is known, "Raja" Mūlawarman is stated to have conquered his neighbours in battle. The name of his kingdom is not mentioned on the inscriptions nor do any other documents in other countries relate to a kingdom at this time in this region. It is not known what became of the kingdom after these pillars had been erected. It may be possible that the name Kutai, as in Tuñjung Kute of the 1365 Javanese Majapahit poem Nāgarakṛtāgama is as ancient and reflects the original name used a thousand years earlier.

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Gunung Berapi Paling Aktif di Indonesia

10. Mount Rinjani (3726 m)

Mount Rinjani or Gunung Rinjani is an active volcano in Indonesia on the island of Lombok. It rises to 3,726 m (12,224 ft), making it the third highest volcano in Indonesia, and similar in height to Mount Fuji. The first historical eruption occurred in September 1847. The most recent eruption of Mount Rinjani was on 10 May 2009. The volcano had started erupting again on 27 April 2009, and the mountain was closed as the eruptions intensified with plumes of smoke and ash as high as 8,000 m.
The 6 km by 8.5 km oval-shaped caldera is filled partially by a crater lake known as Segara Anak ('Child of the Sea') and is approximately 2000m above sea level and estimated at being around 200m deep); the caldera also contains hot springs. The eruptions of 1994, 1995, and 1996 have formed a small cone, Gunung Baru (or 'New Mountain' - approximately 2300m above sea level) in the center of the caldera and lava flows from these eruptions have entered the lake. This cone has since been renamed Mount Barujari (or 'New Finger').
The highlands are forest clad and mostly underdeveloped. The lowlands are highly cultivated. Rice, soybeans, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, and vanilla are the major crops grown in the fertile soils of the island.
The volcano and the caldera are protected by a national park established in 1997. Tourism is increasingly popular with trekkers able to visit the rim, make their way into the caldera or even to make the more arduous climb to the highest point;fatalities, however, are not uncommon. As of July 2009 the summit route was closed due to volcanic activity.from;"Tempo -Mount Rinjani Closed As Eruptions Intensify".

9. Mount Batur (1717 m)

The historically active Batur volcano is located at the center of two concentric calderas NW of Agung volcano. The SE side of the larger 10 x 13 km caldera contains a caldera lake. The inner 7.5-kilometer-wide caldera, which was formed during emplacement of the Bali (or Ubud) ignimbrite, has been dated at about 23,670 and 28,500 years ago (Wheller 1986, Sutawidjaja et al. 1992). The SE wall of the inner caldera lies beneath Lake Batur; Batur cone has been constructed within the inner caldera to a height above the outer caldera rim. The Batur stratovolcano has produced vents over much of the inner caldera, but a NE-SW fissure system has localized the Batur I, II, and III craters along the summit ridge. Historical eruptions have been characterized by mild-to-moderate explosive activity sometimes accompanied by lava emission. Basaltic lava flows from both summit and flank vents have reached the caldera floor and the shores of Lake Batur in historical time. The caldera contains an active, 700-meter-tall stratovolcano rising above the surface of Lake Batur. The first historically documented eruption of Batur was in 1804, and it has been frequently active since then.From: Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program Website, 2000

8. Mount Agung (3142 m)

Volcanic eruptions are thought to be responsible for the global cooling that has been observed for a few years after a major eruption. The amount and global extent of the cooling depend on the force of the eruption and, possibly, its latitude. When large masses of gases from the eruption reach the stratosphere, they can produce a large, widespread cooling effect. As a prime example, the effects of Mount Pinatubo, which erupted in June 1991, may have lasted a few years, serving to offset temporarily the predicted greenhouse effect.
Global cooling often has been linked with major volcanic eruptions. The year 1816 often has been referred to as "the year without a summer". It was a time of significant weather-related disruptions in New England and in Western Europe with killing summer frosts in the United States and Canada. These strange phenomena were attributed to a major eruption of the Tambora volcano in 1815 in Indonesia. The volcano threw sulfur dioxide gas into the stratosphere, and the aerosol layer that formed led to brilliant sunsets seen around the world for several years.
However, there is some confusion about the historical evidence that global cooling may be caused by volcanic emissions. Two recent volcanic eruptions have provided contradictory evidence on this point. Mount Agung in 1963 (Indonesia) apparently caused a considerable decrease in temperatures around much of the world, whereas El Chichon in 1982 (Mexico), seemed to have little effect, perhaps because of its different location or because of the El Nino that occurred the same year. El Nino is a Pacific Ocean phenomenon, but it causes worldwide weather variations that may have acted to cancel out the effect of the El Chichon eruption.
From: NASA's Earth Observing Project Science Webpage: Volcanoes and Global Climate Change, May 2000


7. Mount Kelud (1731 m)

The relatively small Kelut stratovolcano contains a summit crater lake that has been the source of some of Indonesia's most deadly eruptions. A cluster of summit lava domes cut by numerous craters has given the summit a very irregular profile. Satellitic cones and lava domes are also located low on the eastern, western, and SSW flanks. Eruptive activity has in general migrated in a clockwise direction around the summit vent complex. More than 30 eruptions have been recorded from Gunung Kelut since 1000 AD. The ejection of water from the crater lake during Kelut's typically short, but violent eruptions has created pyroclastic flows and lahars that have caused widespread fatalities and destruction. The construction of drainage tunnels beginning in 1926 to lower the lake level has greatly reduced the human impact of recent eruptions.From: Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program Website, 2000


6. Mount Galunggung (2167 m)

On the southeast slope of Galunggung Volcano on the densely populated island of Java, a hummocky deposit called the "Ten Thousand Hills of Tasik Malaja" drew the attention of European geologists in the early part of the 20th century. Dutch geologist B.G. Escher hypothesized that a breakout of a crater lake resulted in a watery landslide that formed the deposit. The hummocks were likely material left behind as the more watery parts of the slide flowed away. Austrian geologist F.X. Schaffer suggested that the hummocks might be manmade; as the local people cleared the land to make ricefields, they made dumps of the boulders and cobbles that they found. The dumps became hummocks, and were used as sites for homes and fruit trees, as they offered protections from hostile people as well as from the mosquitoes and rats of the rice fields. Schaffer noted that the volume of material might seem large for "occidentals but it is not beyond the powers of the numerous and industrious Malays."
The horseshoe shape of Galunggung's crater and the nature of the hummocks, however, suggest a different cause for the formation of the Ten Thousand Hills. Since 1980, geologists from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia and the U.S. Geological Survey have reinterpreted the deposit as a debris-avalanche deposit. Quarry exposures show pieces of the old volcano -- the block facies -- shattered but intact, that are similar to the deposits at Mount St. Helens and Mount Shasta. Radiocarbon dates of a lava flow within the deposit show that the debris avalanche is less than 23,000 years old.From: Brantley and Glicken, 1986, Volcanic Debris Avalanches: Earthquakes & Volcanoes, v.18, n.6, p.195-206.

5. Mount Soputan (1825 m)

The small conical volcano of Soputan on the southern rim of the Quaternary Tondano caldera is one of Sulawesi's most active volcanoes. The youthful, largely unvegetated Soputan volcano is located SW of Sempu volcano and was constructed at the southern end of a SSW-NNE trending line of vents. During historical time the locus of eruptions has included both the summit crater and Aeseput, a prominent NE flank vent that formed in 1906 and was the source of intermittent major lava flows until 1924. From: Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program Website, 2000

4. Mount Semeru (3676 m)

Semeru, the highest volcano on Java, and one of its most active, lies at the southern end of a volcanic massif extending north to the Tengger caldera. The steep-sided volcano, also referred to as Mahameru (Great Mountain), rises abruptly to 3,676 m above coastal plains to the south. Gunung Semeru was constructed south of the overlapping Ajek-ajek and Jambangan calderas. A line of lake-filled maars was constructed along a N-S line cutting through the summit, and cinder cones and lava domes occupy the eastern and NE flanks. Summit topography is complicated by the shifting of craters from NW to SE.

From: Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program Website, 2000


3. Mount Krakatau (813 m)

The renowned Krakatau volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Caldera collapse, perhaps in 416 AD, destroyed the ancestral Krakatau edifice, forming a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of this volcano formed Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently Rakata, Danan and Perbuwatan volcanoes were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan volcanoes, and left only a remnant of Rakata volcano. The post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau), constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former cones of Danan and Perbuwatan, has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.
From: Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program Website, 2000

2. Mount Tambora (2722 m)

Global cooling often has been linked with major volcanic eruptions. The year 1816 often has been referred to as "the year without a summer". It was a time of significant weather-related disruptions in New England and in Western Europe with killing summer frosts in the United States and Canada. These strange phenomena were attributed to a major eruption of the Tambora volcano in 1815 in Indonesia. The volcano threw sulfur dioxide gas into the stratosphere, and the aerosol layer that formed led to brilliant sunsets seen around the world for several years.
The massive Tambora stratovolcano forms the entire 60-kilometer-wide Sanggar Peninsula on northern Sumbawa Island. Tambora grew to about 4000 meters elevation before forming a caldera more than 43,000 years ago. Late-Pleistocene lava flows largely filled the early caldera, after which activity changed to dominantly explosive eruptions during the early Holocene. Tambora was the source of history's largest explosive eruption, in April 1815. Pyroclastic flows reached the sea on all sides of the peninsula and heavy tephra fall devastated croplands, causing an estimated 60,000 fatalities. The eruption of more than 150 cubic kilometers of tephra formed a 6-kilometer-wide, 1250-meter-deep caldera and produced global climatic effects. Minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries.

From:
NASA's Earth Observing Project Science Webpage: Volcanoes and Global Climate Change, May 2000 Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Website, 2002

1. Mount Merapi (2968 m)

The death toll from the eruption of Mt. Merapi, overlooking the city of Yogyakarta in densely populated Central Java, hit 31 as local authorities evacuated more than 5000 villagers from the slopes of the mountain.
Yogyakarta's main public hospital reported 17 people admitted there had died and 32 were on the injured list.
Another seven people were confirmed dead and 12 injured at a Catholic-run hospital.
Officer in charge of the command post coordinating relief operations, Lieutenant Colonel Suyatno, said another seven people died in Turgo village on the slopes of the mountain.
A further seven people with severe burns had also been admitted to a private hospital.
Unconfirmed local media reports said the death toll was as high as 34, with authorities saying five people were still unaccounted for.
Suyatno said 5681 people had been evacuated from seven village on the slopes of Merapi.
The evacuees were sent to five temporary camps, the largest in the village of Pakembinangun, where 2705 people were being sheltered. The conical 2911-metre volcano spewed heat clouds more than 20 times, some spraying out as six kilometers down the slope, along the Krasak and Boyong Rivers.
An official from the vulcanological office in Jakarta said most of the people killed lived on Boyong River. Merapi's last major eruption was in November, 1976, killing 28 people and leaving 1176 people homeless.
from: Graeme Wheller (Dr) Consultant Geologist Volcanex International Pty Ltd (Hobart, Australia)

source:
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/
http://en.wikipedia.org/
http://volcanoelive/

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Menara-menara Terkenal di Indonesia

7. The Equator Monument

The Equator monument is an icon that has Pontianak 15.25 meters high from the ground. Equator monument or monument at the Equator Road, north of Pontianak, West Kalimantan Province. Equator monument is visible now made in the year 1990, by making the dome to protect the original monument in it that was created in 1928. So building a monument built in 1990 is a duplicate of the magnitude of the building 5 x of the original monument and serves to protect the original monument. Equator monument is located on the equator which divides the earth into two parts, North and South. At the time of the meridian sun, that is when the sun was right on the equator monument and shadow images of people and objects around the monument will disappear a few seconds when exposed to sunlight. The sun was the culmination of events that happens twice a year, ie between 21-23 March and 21-23 September.

6. Gadang Clock Tower

Jam Gadang (literally "Massive Clock") is a clocktower and major landmark of the city of Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located in the centre of the city, near the the main market, Pasar Atas, and is a tourist attraction.
The structure was build in 1926 during the Dutch colonial era, as a gift from the Queen to city's controleur. It was designed by architects Yazin and Sutan Gigi Ameh. Originally a rooster figure was placed on the apex, but it was changed into a Jinja-like ornament during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia. Following Indonesian independence, it was reshaped to its present form resembling traditional Minangkabaun roofs (see Rumah gadang). It is said to have cost 3,000 Guilder.

5. Heroes Monument

Heroic Monument, also known as Heroes Monument is a monument in Surabaya. It is the main symbol of Surabaya and based on the heroic history of the people of Surabaya in the past. It was built to dedicate to the people who died during the Battle of Surabaya on November 10, 1945.

The 10 November Museum is located under the monument.

4. Mandala Monument

Mandala Monument is located in Jalan Raya Jenderal Sudirman Makassar. Built in 1994 as a memorial Mandala operations liberation of West Irian Jaya from the Dutch hands. Inside were dioramas that tell the liberation process. Mandala Monument has a height of 75 meters is divided into four floors. Each floor contains the symbols of the liberation struggle and the struggle of West Irian, Sulawesi people, including the era of National Hero, Sultan Hasanuddin.

3. Sky Tower in Kumala Island

Kalimantan also has an attractive tower, the tower of Sky Tower. The tower is very unique because it is located on a small island in the middle of the Mahakam river, which in Tenggarong Kumala Island, East Kalimantan. The tower is 100 meters. The visitors can see the city from the disk Tenggarong on Sky Tower (the tower rotates). The disk may be moved up and down and rotates 360 degrees. To get to the island can Kumala through alternative 2, which is a cable car ride or boat ride.

2. TVRI Tower

TVRI tower is located in Senayan, Jakarta. TVRI Building Center as the first TV station in Indonesia was completed in 1962 before the Asian Games in 1962. TVRI transmitter tower-shaped building and an elevator tower to get to the top. TVRI tower has become one of the interesting sights of the existing buildings in Jakarta. TVRI tower is also a means for testing the first digital TV in Indonesia with the transmitter DVB-T & DVB-H is installed at a height of about 100 meters in the tower TVRI Senayan.

1. Monas (National Monument)

The National Monument (Indonesian: Monumen Nasional (Monas)) is a 422 ft (128.7 m) tower in Central Jakarta, symbolizing the fight for Indonesia's independence. Construction began in 1961 under the direction of President Sukarno and the monument was opened to the public in 1975. It is topped by a flame covered with gold foil.

After the Indonesian government returned to Jakarta from Yogyakarta in 1950 following the Dutch recognition of Indonesian independence, President Sukarno began to contemplate the construction of a national monument comparable to the Eiffel Tower on the square in front of the presidential palace. On 17 August 1954, a National Monument Committee was established and a design competition was held in 1955. This attracted 51 entries, but only one design, by Frederich Silaban, met any of the criteria determined by the committee, which included reflecting the character of Indonesia in a building capable of lasting for centuries. A repeat competition was held in 1960, but once again, none of the 136 entries met the criteria. The chairman of the jury team then asked Silaban to show his design to Sukarno. However, Sukarno did not like the design as he wanted the monument to be in the form of a linga and yoni. Silaban was asked to design such a monument, but his design was so for a monument so large that it would have been unaffordable given the economic conditions at the time. Silaban refused to design a smaller monument, suggesting that construction be delayed until the Indonesian economy improved. Sukarno then asked the architect R.M. Soedarsono to continue with the design. Soedarsono incorporated the numbers 17, 8 and 45, representing the 17 August 1945 Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, in the dimensions of the monument.
source:
http://petra.ac.id/
http://skyscraper.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/

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http://flickr.com/
http://photobucket.com/
http://jakartadailyphoto.com/

Dede is a Tree Man

Dede, a fisherman suffered scratches while still a teenager. Strangely, after that some sort of growth of warts resembling overgrown tree roots.
Condition Dede (35 years), a fisherman, really astonishing medical experts when he saw the warts as "root tree" growing in the arms and legs. According to him, it's part of his body began to change after his knee was scratched during a teenager.
Dede experienced problems, according to Gaspari, he only has a rare genetic trait that prevents the immune system. Therefore, the virus control "mobile machine" the skin cells, forming a strange warts in large numbers like the trees growing in the hands and feet.
At present Dede has been successfully experienced in the operation Sadikin Hospital in Bandung and was back to normal life

Hewan Langka Indonesia (Bag II)

5. Limnonectes asperatus

Limnonectes asperatus is a species of frog in the Ranidae family. It is endemic to Indonesia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.

4. Blue-eyed Spotted Cuscus (Spilocuscus wilsoni)

The Blue-eyed Spotted Cuscus or Biak Spotted Cuscus (Spilocuscus wilsoni) is a species of marsupial in the Phalangeridae family. It is endemic to the islands of Biak and Supiori in the Cenderawasih Bay of Indonesia. Only scientifically described in 2004, it appears to be very rare, likely due to hunting and habitat loss, and has consequently been rated as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Recent surveys have failed to find any wild individuals. Unlike all other members of the genus Spilocuscus, this relatively small species has distinct pale blue eyes.

3. Caerulean Paradise-flycatcher (Eutrichomyias rowley)

The Caerulean Paradise-flycatcher, Eutrichomyias rowleyi, is a medium-sized (up to 18cm long), blue flycatcher with bright cerulean blue plumage, bare white orbital ring, dark brown iris, bluish black bill and pale blue-grey below. The young has a shorter tail and grey underparts. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Eutrichomyias.
The Caerulean Paradise-flycatcher is endemic to the island of Sangihe, off north Sulawesi in Indonesia. Previously known only from a single specimen collected in 1873, this rare bird was rediscovered in October 1998 around forested valleys of Mount Sahendaruman in southern Sangihe. Its diet consists mainly of insects and other small invertebrates.
The scientific name commemorates the British explorer and ornithologist George Dawson Rowley.
Due to ongoing habitat loss, a small population size, and limited range, the Caerulean Paradise-flycatcher is evaluated as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

2. Papuan Butterfly (Delias kristianiae)

Delias kristianiae is a rare Papuan butterfly that is named after the Indonesian first lady Kristiani Herawati. Kristiani Herawati was presented with a specimen of D. kristianiae after the species was named, which she donated to a museum.

1. Javan Scops-owl (Otus angelinae)

This small owl qualifies for Vulnerable because its small range is undergoing contraction and increasing fragmentation through habitat loss, a factor that implies reductions in its small population. However, its silent, nocturnal habits and unobtrusive behaviour may have resulted in it being consistently under-recorded. Additional locality records and population data may require a reassessment of its threat status.
Otus angelinae is endemic to the island of Java, Indonesia, where it is known from seven mountains, though there are recent records from only three. An evaluation of records and museum/zoo specimens, coupled with its reputed silence, suggests it may be more numerous and widespread than available evidence shows.
It inhabits tropical upper montane forest between 1,000 m and 2,000 m. Observations suggest a breeding territory size of very roughly 50 ha. Fledged young have been recorded in February, June and July, indicating egg-laying in at least May and December. It is presumed to be resident, perhaps making some altitudinal movements.
source:
http://worldwitch.com
http://orientalbirdclub.org
http://daylife.com
http://wikimedia.org
http://birdtoursaia.com
http://iucn.org
http://birdlife.org
http://en.wikipedia.org

pictured by:
http://flickr.com
http://orientalbirdclub.org
http://birdlife.org